UC-NRLF 


$B    31ft    1^2 


SCBI'U'NVPIW 


UNIVERSITY  OF  PENNSYLVANIA 


THE  WITMER  FORM  BOARD  AND  CYL- 
INDERS AS  TESTS  FOR  CHILDREN 
TWO  TO  SIX  YEARS  OF  AGE 


BY 

GLADYS  GENE VR A  IDE 


A  THESIS 

PRESENTED  TO  THE  FACULTY  OF  THE  GRADUATE  SCHOOL  IN 
PARTUL  FULFILLMENT  OF  THE  REQUIREMENTS  FOR 
THE  DEGREE  OF  DOCTOR  OF  PHILOSOPHY 


PHILADELPHIA.  PA. 

THE  PSYCHOLOGICAL  CLINIC  PRESS 

1918 


UNIVERSITY  OF  PENNSYLVANIA 


THE  WITMER  FORMBOARD  AND  CYL- 
INDERS AS  TESTS  FOR  CHILDREN 
TWO  TO  SIX  YEARS  OF  AGE 


BY 

GLADYS  GENEVRA  IDE 


■ .  J '  . '  1  . 


J  J   >  J . 


A  THESIS 

PRESENTED  TO  THE  FACULTY  OF  THE  GRADUATE  SCHOOL  IN 
PARTL\L  FULFILLMENT  OF  THE  REQUIREMENTS  FOR 
THE  DEGREE  OF  DOCTOR  OF  PHILOSOPHY 


PHILADELPHIA,  PA. 

THE  PSYCHOLOGICAL  CLINIC  PRESS 

1918 


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CONTENTS 

PAGE 

I.    Introduction 1 


II.    Description 

Subjects 2 

Tests — Formboard 3 

Method 3 

Cylinders 5 

III.     §  1.     Statistical  Aspects  of  Formeoard 

Five-year-old  Children 7 

Four  and  three-year-old  Children 10 

Analytical  Ratings 11 

The  Formboard  as  Didactic  Material 14 

Conclusions 18 


IV.     §  2.     The  Witmer  Cylinders 

The  Cylinders  as  Didactic  Material 20 

Conclusions 24 

Bibliography 24 


^443:i5 


THE  WITHER  FORMBOARD   AND   CYLINDERS   AS 

TESTS   FOR  CHILDREN  TWO  TO 

SIX  YEARS  OF   AGE.^ 

By  Gladys  Genevra  Ide, 
University  of  Pennsylvania. 

I.     Introduction. 

The  Witmer  formboard  and  cylinders  have  been  used  for  several 
years  in  the  Psychological  Clinic  of  the  University  of  Pennsylvania 
as  a  means  for  measuring  the  abilities  of  children.  Since  no  one  knew 
how  the  ordinary  child  performed  the  test  nor  in  how  many  seconds 
he  could  do  it,  comparisons  were  always  made  between  children  of 
like  age  who  had  appeared  at  the  Clinic,  In  1915,  Dr.  Herman  H. 
Young  obtained  formboard  records  from  a  large  number  of  normal 
children  of  school  age  in  the  public  schools  of  Philadelphia,  and  a 
similar  investigation  for  the  cylinders  has  recently  been  made  by 
Dr.  Franklin  C.  Paschal.  Not  enough  records  have  yet  been  col- 
lected for  the  standardization  of  either  test,  but  a  start  in  that 
direction  has  been  made. 

jVIany  children  of  less  than  six  years  are  brought  to  the  Clinic 
for  examination.  The  use  of  either  of  these  tests  as  testing  or 
teaching  material  is  of  doubtful  value  if  no  one  knows  what  is  to  be 
expected  of  normal  children  of  from  two  to  six  years  of  age.  The 
Clinic  has  held  consistently  that  the  child  of  four  years  should  be 
able  to  do  the  formboard  correctly,  and  the  child  of  six  years,  the 
cylinders,  but  this  view  came  as  a  result  of  clinical  experience  and 
not  from  the  records  of  a  large  number  of  normal  children.  Through 
a  study  of  records  of  normal  children  of  kindergarten  age  or  younger 
the  present  investigation  aims  to  determine: 

1.  The  age  level  of  the  tests; 

2.  Their  clinical  value; 

3.  The  earliest  passing  age; 

4.  The  analytic  determination  of  the  causes  of  failure;  and 

5.  The  value  of  their  employment  as  a  test  of  educability. 
Young  tested  32  five-year-old  children  with  the  formboard.     Of 

this  number  14  were  boys  and   18  were  girls.      Three  boys  were 
successful  in  the  first  trial  and  the  remainder  in  the  second  trial, 

'  Reprinted  from  THE  PSYCHOLOGICAL  CLINIC,  Vo'.  XII,  No.  3,  May  15,  1918. 


:i2  TKE  PSYCHOLOGICAL  CLINIC. 

^'nib  3  girls  W'^re  successful  in  the  first  trial,  14  in  the  second  and  1 
in  the  third.  Of  28  four-year-old  children  tested,  9  of  the  ten  boys 
required  two  trials  for  a  successful  performance,  while  the  tenth 
boy  required  three  trials.  Four  girls  succeeded  in  the  first  trial, 
11  in  the  second,  and  3  in  the  third  trial. 

These  figures  would  seem  to  indicate  that  four  and  five-year-old 
children  are  not  able  to  do  the  formboard  on  the  first  trial,  but  in 
reality  the  number  of  failures  to  perform  it  at  the  first  attempt  is 
due  to  the  limit  of  time  which  Young  allowed.  Since  the  Clinic 
made  no  restriction  in  time,  none  was  placed  on  either  of  the  tests 
used  in  this  investigation. 

II.     Description. 

The  children  chosen  as  subjects  were  from  kindergartens  con- 
nected with  the  public  schools  of  Philadelphia,  or  those  operated  in 
conjunction  with  social  centers.  The  American  children  came  from 
families  very  few  of  whom  were  professional  people,  but  who  were 
well  able  to  maintain  their  children.  The  foreign  children  came  from 
homes  in  the  foreign  quarter.  Most  of  them  were  from  families 
financially  well  above  the  poverty  line,  but  in  a  few  cases  the  homes 
were  being  maintained  by  charitable  organizations.  Practically  all 
nationalities  were  represented,  but  Americans  and  Jews  predominate, 
while  Italians,  Poles,  Austrians,  and  Roumanians  other  than  Jews, 
French,  Spanish,  Germans,  and  Turks  make  up  the  completed  list. 
In  determining  a  child's  nationality,  he  w^as  considered  as  being  of 
that  nation  to  which  his  parents  formerly  belonged.  If  his  parents 
were  born  in  the  United  States,  he  was  considered  an  American. 

The  nationality  and  age  of  the  child  were  taken  from  the 
reports  which  the  schools  require  of  the  parents.  They  were  sup- 
plemented by  the  teacher's  knowledge.  In  some  cases  the  aid  of 
social  workers  and  the  parish  priest  was  sought  in  the  attempt  to 
determine  the  ages  of  children,  and  yet  it  seems  fairly  certain  that 
some  of  the  ages  of  the  foreign  children  are  not  the  true  ones.  Those 
for  the  American  children  maj^  be  presumed  correct.  Foreign 
parents  wish  their  children  to  enter  the  industrial  field  as  soon  as 
possible.  For  this  reason  they  enter  their  children  at  the  kinder- 
gartens just  as  soon  as  the  size  of  the  child  will  enable  them  to  swear 
to  an  age  of  four  years.  As  a  result,  many  are  entered  shortly 
after  they  have  passed  their  third  birthday.  Again,  many  foreign- 
ers pay  no  attention  to  the  date  of  a  child's  birth,  or  remember  it  in 
relation  to  some  holiday,  so  that  the  birthday  is  unknown  and  is 
given  as  is  convenient. 


WITMER  FORM  BOARD  AND  CYLINDERS.  3 

In  the  present  study  it  was  noted  that  the  birthdays  of  a  large 
number  of  children  were  given  as  occurring  in  August,  September, 
or  January,  months  in  which  the  child  would  be  entering  school. 
In  the  Polish  section  of  the  city,  the  dates  of  birth  were  obtained  from 
the  parish  priest  who  had  made  a  record  of  the  date  of  baptism  as  the 
date  of  birth.  In  one  social  center  there  was  no  record  of  any  sort, 
the  dates  given  being  those  of  the  teacher  in  charge  who  had  been 
in  the  district  when  the  children  were  born,  and  who  gave  the  ages 
as  nearly  as  she  could  remember. 

The  tests  used  were  the  Witmer  formboard  and  cylinders. 
The  formboard,  including  the  raised  edge  on  each  side,  is  one  foot 
square.  The  surrounding  edge,  three-quarters  of  an  inch  wide, 
fits  Rush  with  the  back  of  the  board  and  even  with  the  tops  of  the 
blocks  when  they  are  in  place.  At  one  side,  a  tray  three  and  one- 
quarter  inches  wide  and  half  an  inch  deep,  extends  across  the  board. 
The  remaining  section  of  the  board  is  divided  into  spaces  suitable 
for  the  accommodation  of  eleven  geometrical  figures  as  nearly  uni- 
form in  area  as  their  variety  of  form  will  allow.  The  area  is  about 
2.25  square  inches  and  the  thickness  one-half  inch.  The  recess  in 
which  the  block  is  placed  is  just  enough  larger  than  the  block  to 
permit  the  piece  to  slide  easil}^  into  place  without  danger  of  becoming 
wedged  in  by  a  vigorous  subject.  The  depth  of  each  recess  is  one- 
half  that  of  the  blocks,  so  that  when  placed  the  blocks  extend  one- 
fourth  inch  above  the  surface  of  the  board.  The  blocks  and  their 
recesses  are  of  such  a  size  and  shape  that  no  block  can  be  fitted  into 
any  recess  other  than  its  own.  Both  board  and  blocks  are  neatly 
stained,  the  board  being  light  oak  and  the  blocks  walnut,  while  the 
recesses  are  painted  black,  thus  affording  an  effective  contrast 
between  the  board,  blocks  and  recesses.  The  tray  at  the  top  of  the 
board  is  a  receptacle  for  the  blocks  when  removed  from  their 
recesses.  It  determines  definitely  where  the  blocks  are  to  be  placed 
and  insures  that  they  shall  be  within  the  reach  of  the  subject 
throughout  the  test.  The  blocks  are  numbered  in  consecutive  order 
from  one  to  eleven,  number  one  being  the  square,  two  the  rectangle, 
three  the  cross,  four  the  ellipse,  five  the  semicircle,  six  the  circle, 
seven  the  isosceles  triangle,  eight  the  star,  nine  the  equilateral  tri- 
angle, ten  the  hexagon,  and  eleven  the  rhombus. 

Each  subject  was  tested  individually.  He  was  required  to 
stand  during  the  test  directly  in  front  of  the  board,  which  was 
placed  on  a  chair  or  a  low  table  with  the  tTay  farthest  from  him. 
The  board  was  placed  so  that  the  light  fell  in  such  a  way  that  no 
shadows  obscured  it.  In  some  schools  a  private  room  was  available, 
and  in  that  case  no  one  was  present  in  the  room  but  the  subject  and 


4  THE  PSYCHOLOGICAL   CLINIC. 

experimenter.  In  other  schools  no  private  room  was  available  and 
in  those  cases  the  subject  was  taken  as  far  from  the  others  as  possi- 
ble and  screened  from  their  view.  The  conditions  were  thus  not 
ideal,  but  the  children  were  less  disturbed  emotionally  when  the 
tests  were  given  in  the  room  with  the  others  than  when  they  were 
taken  into  strange  surroundings  with  the  associations  which  are 
built  around  a  room  used  by  the  school  dentist,  doctor,  or  nurse. 
The  tests  were  continued  from  November  to  May  inclusive,  thus 
securing  all  gradations  of  temperature  and  health.  All  the  children 
of  a  given  kindergarten  were  tested  and  the  records  retained  except 
only  those  from  colored  children  and  from  subjects  with  obviously 
defective  sight. 

The  blocks  were  left  in  their  proper  recesses  until  the  subject 
had  placed  himself  before  the  board,  when  they  were  removed  from 
the  tray  in  a  random  order  by  the  experimenter.  At  the  same 
time  the  experimenter  remarked,  "I  am  going  to  take  these  blocks 
out  and  put  them  up  here.  I  want  to  see  how  quickly  you  can  put 
them  back  where  they  belong.  You  may  use  both  hands  and  work 
as  fast  as  you  can."  If  the  subject  did  not  seem  to  understand — 
and  many  did  not  since  the}'  did  not  speak  English — the  experi- 
menter added  further,  "You  put  them  away,"  accompanying  the 
words  by  a  gesture  from  the  tray  toward  the  reccesses.  No  child 
failed  to  understand  after  the  gesture. 

The  time — to  the  nearest  second — required  for  the  completion 
of  the  test  was  taken,  as  was  also  an  observation  as  to  method,  and 
in  the  case  of  failure,  the  reason  for  failure.  The  watch  was  kept 
in  the  hand  as  much  out  of  sight  of  the  child  as  possible.  The  experi- 
menter sat  behind  the  child  and  slightly  to  one  side,  so  that  the 
board  was  clearly  visible.  This  position  was  necessary  since  many 
kindergarten  children  depend  largely  on  the  affirmative  or  negative 
cues  given  by  the  teacher  as  a  guide  to  their  next  act. 

If  the  subject  succeeded  with  the  test  the  first  time,  he  was  not 
required  to  repeat  it,  but  if  he  failed  the  first  time,  that  is,  failed  to 
place  all  the  blocks  correctly  in  the  spaces,  not  over  them  or  leaning 
on  the  edge,  by  his  own  efforts,  the  blocks  were  correctly  placed  for 
him  by  the  experimenter,  no  word  being  spoken,  and  then  removed 
in  a  definite  order,  three  piles  being  formed  in  the  tray.  The  first 
pile  contained  blocks  numbered  five,  ten,  seven,  and  eight  placed 
directly  above  recess  number  one;  the  second  pile,  placed  between 
recess  four  and  seven,  included  blocks  numbered  eleven,  two,  and 
nine,  and  the  third  pile,  consisting  of  blocks  numbered  one,  six, 
four,  and  three,  was  placed  above  recess  nine.  The  numbering  of 
the  blocks  was  always  from  the  topmost  block  downward.      After 


WITMER  FORMBOARD  AND  CYLINDERS.  5 

the  blocks  had  been  so  placed,  the  experimenter  said,  "I  want  to  see 
if  j^ou  cannot  put  them  in  quicker  this  time."  If  the  child  failed  to 
place  the  blocks  correctly  on  this  trial,  he  was  permitted  to  remove 
them  himself  the  third  time,  the  directions  given  being,  "This  time 
you  may  take  out  the  blocks  yourself  and  put  them  in  the  tray,  and 
then  see  if  you  can't  put  them  in  quicker."  The  subject  removed 
the  blocks  as  he  saw  fit,  except  that  he  was  required  to  place  them 
in  the  tray. 

If  the  third  trial  proved  a  failure,  the  blocks  not  placed  cor- 
rectly were  removed  from  the  board,  and  the  circle,  the  one  most 
easily  placed — was  handed  to  the  child,  and  he  was  told  to  put  it 
away.  If  he  did  not  succeed  in  placing  it,  he  was  told  "Put  it 
there,"  the  experimenter  pointing  to  the  correct  recess.  When 
placed  correctly  the  experimenter  removed  the  block  and  offered  it 
again  with  the  same  words  as  before.  If  the  block  was  correctly 
placed  a  second  one  was  offered,  and  so  on  until  all  the  blocks  had 
been  correctly  placed.  If  some  of  the  blocks  had  been  correctly 
placed  in  the  first  trials,  this  amount  of  teaching  was  sufficient  to 
insure  success  in  a  succeeding  trial,  where  the  procedure  was  the 
same  as  in  trial  three. 

If  in  the  preceding  trials,  none  of  the  blocks  had  been  correctly 
placed,  then  all  the  blocks  except  the  circle  were  correctly  placed 
and  this  was  offered  to  the  child  to  place.  No  child  failed  to  place 
the  circle,  although  in  the  case  of  two-year-old  subjects  the  experi- 
menter moved  the  hand  toward  the  recess  so  that  the  child  would 
learn  what  was  wanted  of  him,  when  he  could  not  understand  the 
words  of  direction.  When  one  block  was  placed  correctly,  two 
spaces  were  left  vacant,  the  blocks  offered  in  different  order,  and  the 
number  of  blocks  was  increased  until  five  or  six  would  be  removed 
at  once  and  all  correctly  replaced.  Beyond  this  point  it  was  unnec- 
essary to  go,  as  the  children  were  then  able  to  place  all  the  blocks 
by  themselves. 

The  second  test,  the  cylinders,  consists  of  a  single  soHd  frame 
of  wood,  formed  of  seven  layers  of  pine,  each  three-eighths  inch  thick, 
and  glued  together  in  such  fashion  that  alternate  layers  of  the  wood 
are  gramed  at  right  angles.  This  frame  is  circular  with  a  diameter 
of  ten  and  a  half  inches.  Six  layers  of  the  wood  are  removed  from 
the  center  in  such  a  way  that  an  inner  open  circular  space  seven  and 
a  half  inches  in  diameter  and  two  and  one-fourth  inches  in  depth  is 
formed.  The  outer  wall  varies  from  two  and  one-eighth  inches  at 
the  widest  point  to  one  and  one-sixteenth  inches  at  the  narrowest 
point  to  accommodate  the  different  diameters  of  cylinders  reposing 
in  recesses  cut  in  this  outer  wall.     Eighteen  recesses  are  cut  in  the 


6  THE  PSYCHOLOGICAL  CLINIC. 

wall,  the  deepest  being  two  \nd  one-sixteenth  inches,  and  when 
that  recess  is  placed  farthest  from  the  observer  a  variation  of  three- 
sixteenths  of  an  inch  is  made  in  each  of  seven  recesses  to  the  right 
of  the  deepest  one,  the  shallowest  recess  thus  formed  being  fifteen- 
sixteenths  of  an  inch  deep.  The  recesses  to  the  left  of  the  shallowest 
then  increase  in  depth  in  the  same  degree  until  the  maximum  is 
again  reached.  The  recesses  are  just  large  enough  to  receive  easily 
cylinders  of  the  following  diameters ;  from  the  same  post  of  observa- 
tion, the  cylinder  filling  the  first  space  observed  is  two  and  one- 
sixteenth  inches  in  diameter,  its  left-hand  neighbor,  one  and  eleven- 
sixteenth  inches,  and  the  succeeding  cylinders  respectively  one  and 
nine-sixteenths,  one  and  five-sixteenths,  one  and  one-sixteenth,  and 
fifteen-sixteenth  inches  in  diameter.  From  the  observed  point 
toward  the  right  the  same  differences  in  diameter  are  noted  until 
that  of  fifteen-sixteenths  of  an  inch  has  been  reached,  after  which  all 
the  remaining  cylinders  are  of  the  same  diameter,  but  of  varjdng 
depth.  The  whole  is  finished  in  oil  and  varnish  in  the  natural  color 
of  the  wood. 

In  giving  the  test,  the  conditions  and  subject  were  the  same  as 
in  the  formboard  test.  The  cylinders  were  placed  before  the  subject 
with  the  largest  cylinder  at  the  point  farthest  from  the  child.  The 
cyhnders  were  removed  from  their  recesses  by  the  experimenter  and 
placed  in  the  center  of  the  board.  While  doing  this  the  experimenter 
observed,  "I  am  going  to  put  these  blocks  in  the  center  (middle), 
and  I  want  you  to  put  them  back  where  they  belong.  You  may  use 
one  hand  or  both  and  work  just  as  fast  as  you  can."  In  this  test, 
as  well  as  with  the  formboard  it  was  frequently  necessary  to  add 
the  more  informal,  "You  put  them  away,"  accompanied  by  a  gesture 
toward  the  recesses.  The  subject  then  tried  to  place  the  cylinders 
in  the  correct  recesses.  If  he  was  successful  the  first  time,  he  was 
dismissed,  but  if  not,  after  the  time  and  observations  were  taken  as 
with  the  formboard,  the  cylinders  incorrectly  placed  were  removed 
and  placed  correctly  and  those  not  placed  were  placed.  No  word 
was  spoken  during  the  process.  As  soon  as  all  the  cylinders  were 
placed,  the  whole  procedure  was  repeated.  If  the  subject  succeeded 
the  second  time,  no  further  attempt  was  made,  but  if  he  did  not,  a 
third  trial  was  given  in  the  same  way.  Teaching  was  not  attempted 
in  all  cases  of  failure.  In  a  few  instances  the  test  was  taught  to  a 
child.  When  this  was  done,  all  the  cylinders  except  two  were  placed. 
These  two  were  handed  to  the  subject  and  he  placed  them.  The 
process  was  then  repeated  with  three  cylinders  and  then  four  and  so 
on  as  the  child  became  proficient.  The  drill  was  continued  until  all 
the  cylinders  of  a  given  diameter  but  of  varying  depth  had  been 


WITMER  FORM  BOA  rw  AND  CYLINDERS. 


taught.  Then  those  of  varying  diameter  and  the  same  depth  were 
taught  and  then  the  remainder.  Two  cjdinders  could  be  used  at 
the  beginning  because  the  children  of  four  j^ears  had  had  enough 
previous  experience  with  the  tests  to  understand  the  first  principles 
of  putting  the  cylinder  in  its  place.  If  an  error  was  made  while  the 
child  was  learning,  the  cylinder  was  removed  by  the  experimenter 
and  offered  again  later.  If  the  child  again  made  an  error, 
the  correct  recess  was  pointed  out  and  the  child  told  to  "Put  it 
there." 

§1.     Statistical  Aspects  of  the  Formboard — Five-year-old 

Children. 
The  formboard  was  used  as  a  test  with  449  five-j^ear-old  chil- 
dren. Of  this  number  231  were  boys  and  218  were  girls.  Table  1 
shows  the  number  of  cases  of  failure  and  the  percentage  of  failure 
for  the  year  groups.  The  year  groups  include  all  children  within 
two  weeks  of  their  fifth  birthday  and  those  within  two  weeks  of 
their  sixth  birthday. 

Table  1. — Number  Failing  on  both  Formboard  and  Cylinders. 


;    Number 
Age      i         of 
1      Cases 

Number 
Failing 
1st  Trial 

Per  Cent          Number          Per  Cent 
Failing             Failing      .       Failing 
1st  Trial        on  2  Trials   1   on  2  Trials 

Number 

Failing 

on  3  Trials 

Per  Cent 

Failing 

on  3  Trials 

FORMBOARD. 
Boys. 

5 
i 

231 
154 

19 

29 

8.2 

IS. 8 

9 
5 

3.9                    4 
3.2                    4 

17 

2  6 

Girls. 

5 

i 

218 
157 

22 

10.1                   8          :          3.6 
27.9                   15                    95 

3 

8 

14 
5.1 

CYLINDERS. 

BOTS. 

5 

189 

140 

73.9 

78 

41.5 

62 

32.9 

Girls. 

5        1         179 

124                 69.3 

70 

39.1 

48 

26.8 

Nineteen  or  8.2  per  cent  of  the  five-year  boys  failed  to  complete 
the  formboard  correctly  the  first  trial,  and  22  or  10.1  per  cent  of  the 
girls.  The  first  trial  is  taken  as  the  significant  trial  to  eliminate  the 
learning  process  which  is  so  large  a  factor  in  the  second  and  third 


8 


THE  PSYCHOLOGICAL  CLINIC. 


trials.     But  1.7  per  cent  of  the  boys  and  1.4  per  cent  of  the  girls 
failed  to  complete  the  board  successfully  in  three  trials. 

Seventy-nine  of  the  boys  were  Americans  and  82  were  foreign - 
born  Jews;   2.5  per  cent  of  the  American  boys  and  13.4  per  cent  of 


Table  2. — Comparison  of  Results  from  Americans  and  Jews  of 

Foreign  Parentage. 


Age 

Number 

of 

Cases 

Number 
Failing 
1st  Trial 

Per  Cent 
Failing 
1st  Trial 

Number 

Failing 

on  2  Trials 

Per  Cent 

Failing 

on  2  Trials 

Number 

Failing 

on  3  Trials 

Per  Cent 

Failing 
on  3  Tria's 

formboard. 

American  Boys. 

5 

4 

79 
58 

2 
9 

2.5 
15.5 

1 

0 

1.3 
3  4 

1 
2 

1.3 
3.4 

Jewish  Bots. 

5 

4 

82 
C9 

11 

15 

13.4 
23.2 

7 
2 

8.5 
2.9 

3 
2 

3.6 
2.9 

American  Girls. 

5 

4 

100 
59 

6 
15 

6 
25.4 

2 
4 

2 
6.7 

2 
2 

2 
3.4 

Jewish  Girls. 

5 
4 

63 
63 

9 
19 

14.3 
30.2 

2 
7 

3.1 
11.1 

1 
4 

1.6 
6.3 

CYLINDERS. 
American  Bots. 

5 

68 

44 

64.5 

18 

26.5 

12 

17.6 

Jewish  Bots. 

5 

58 

'-• 

72.4 

28 

48.3 

27 

46.6 

American  Girls. 

5 

84 

54 

64.3 

38 

45.2 

19 

22  6 

Jewish  Girls. 

5 

50 

33 

66.6                  21 

42 

„ 

28 

the  Jewish  boys  failed  the  first  trial  as  shown  in  table  2.  Of  the 
girls,  100  were  Americans  and  63  Jews;  6  per  cent  of  the  American 
girls  and  14.3  per  cent  of  the  Jewish  girls  failed  to  pass  the  first 
trial.     One  and  three-tenths  per  cent  of  the  American  boys  and  3.6 


WITHER  FORM  BOARD  AND  CYLINDERS.  9 

per  cent  of  the  Jewish  boys  failed  in  three  trials;  while  2  per  cent  of 
the  American  girls  and  1.6  per  cent  of  the  Jewish  girls  failed  to  pass 
the  test  in  three  trials.  The  percentage  of  failures  in  the  first  trials  for 
both  boys  and  girls  is  unusually  high  for  the  foreign-born  Jewish 
children,  while  the  percentage  of  failures  of  those  who  had  three 
trials  is  higher  for  the  boys,  but  lower  for  the  girls. 

Table  3  shows  the  tune  values  for  the  successful  performance 
on  the  first  trial  in  relation  to  the  number  of  cases  of  different  ages, 


Table  3. — Time  Values  for  Successful  Performance  on  First  Trial 
AND  Number  of  Cases  of  Different  Ages. 


Age 


No.  of 
Cases 


Mean 


Mean 
Deviation 


Min- 
imum 


Lowest      Lower 
Quintile    Quintile 


Median 


Upper 
Quintile 


Highest      Max- 
Quintile     imum 


FORMBOARD. 
Boys 


5.75 

130 

Im    8.83 

25.03 

25s 

4.53 

5.53 

Im 

Im    08 

Im  308 

5.25 

82 

Im  13.63 

30.4s 

25s 

44s 

55s 

Im 

Im    3s 

Im  ISs 

4.75 

86 

Im  46.1s 

49.23 

28s 

53s 

Im  10s 

Im  26s 

Im  393 

2m  13s 

4.25 

39 

Im  41.5s 

33.83 

38s 

Im     Is 

Im  21s 

Im  37s 

Im  41s 

2m  lis 

3m  42s 

5m  326 

11m  15s 

6m  10s 


Girls. 


5.75 
5  25 
4.75 
4.25 


115 

Im     6.93 

24.6s 

27s 

41s 

533 

583 

Im     4s 

Im  30s 

81 

Im  20.53 

36.3s 

28s 

453 

55s 

Im    4s 

Im    8s 

Im  4Ss 

68 

Im  42.43 

53.43 

37s 

553 

Im    53 

Im  133 

Im  24s 

2m  10s 

42 

2m  25.38 

86.2s 

37s 

59s 

Im  23s 

Im  45s 

2m  28s 

3m  45s 

2m  45s 
5m  33s 
5m  43s 

9m     7s 


CYLINDERS-ALL  CASES. 

BOTS. 


5.75 

115 

Im  283 

3m     5s 

F 

F 

F 

F 

5.25 

74 

Im  23s 

6m  los 

F 

F 

F 

F 

Girls. 


5.75 
5.25 


104 
75 


Im    43 
Im  553 


3m  26s 
3m     "s 


F 
F 


F 
F 


the  age  groups  being  divided  into  first  and  second  half-j-ears.  The 
first  column  of  the  table  indicates  the  ages,  the  second  the  number  of 
cases  of  each  age,  the  third  the  time  values,  in  mmutes  and  seconds, 
of  the  mean,  and  following  it  the  mean  deviation  in  seconds.  The 
fifth  column  contains  the  minimum  or  shortest  time  record  for  the 
age,  the  sixth  column  the  value  of  the  record  below  which  20  per 
cent  of  the  cases  are  distributed,  the  seventh  column  the  value  of  that 
record  below  which  40  per  cent  of  the  cases  are  distributed,  and  the 


10  THE  PSYCHOLOGICAL  CLINIC. 

eighth  column,  the  median  or  the  value  above  and  below  which  50 
per  cent  of  the  eases  are  distributed.  The  ninth  and  tenth  columns 
contain  respectively  values  above  which  40  per  cent  and  20  per  cent 
of  the  cases  are  distributed,  and  the  eleventh  column  contains  the 
maximmn  or  longest  record  made  by  an  individual  of  the  group. 

Four  and  Three-year-old  Children. 

Three  hundred  and  eleven  four-year-old  children,  of  whom  154 
were  boys  and  157  were  girls,  were  tested  with  the  formboard.  Of 
these,  29  or  18.8  per  cent  of  the  boys  and  44  or  27.9  per  cent  of  the 
girls  failed  to  perform  successfully  the  first  trial;  2.6  per  cent  of  the 
boys  and  5.1  per  cent  of  the  girls  did  not  succeed  in  three  trials. 

Fifty-eight  of  the  boys  were  Americans  and  69  were  foreign- 
born  Jews;  15.5  per  cent  of  the  American  boys  and  23.2  per  cent  of 
the  Jewish  boys  failed  on  the  first  trial,  while  3.4  per  cent  of  the 
Americans  and  2.9  per  cent  of  the  Jews  failed  in  three  trials.  Fifty- 
nine  of  the  girls  were  Americans  and  63  Jews;  25.4  per  cent  of  the 
American  girls  and  30.2  per  cent  of  the  Jewish  girls  failed  in  the  first 
trial,  while  3.4  per  cent  of  the  American  girls  and  6.3  per  cent  of  the 
Jewish  girls  failed  in  the  third  trial. 

The  time  values  for  the  half  year  groups  are  shown  in  table  3 
the  same  as  for  the  five-year-olds.  Except  for  the  4.25  year  boys, 
the  mean  shows  a  decrease  with  an  increase  of  age,  with  a  lessened 
mean  deviation.  This  tendency  continues  for  the  median  and 
maximum  as  well  as  the  other  values  shown  in  the  table.  The  differ- 
ences shown  in  the  half-year  groups  clearly  warrant  norms  for  half 
year  rather  than  for  full  year  groups. 

Sex  differences  are  not  clearly  sustained.  A  larger  percentage 
of  both  five  and  four-year-old  girls  fail  on  the  first  trial  than  of  the 
boj's,  but  the  percentage  of  five-j^ear-old  girls  failing  in  three  trials 
is  slightly  less,  and  the  percentage  of  four-year-old  girls  nearly  twice 
as  great  as  that  of  the  boys.  The  percentage  of  both  five  and  four- 
year-old  girls  of  American  parentage  failing  in  the  first  trial  is  much 
greater  than  that  of  the  boys,  but  the  percentage  of  failure  of  Ameri- 
can boys  and  girls  for  three  trials  is  the  same,  while  Jewish  girls  fail 
oftener  than  Jewish  boys.  Since  the  percentage  of  failure  in  the 
first  trial  of  Jewish  boys  of  either  four  or  five  is  in  excess  of  American 
boys  of  the  same  age,  and  the  percentage  of  those  failing  in  the 
third  trial  is  very  nearly  the  same,  it  seems  doubtful  whether  the 
percental  differences  can  be  explained  on  the  basis  of  either  sex  or 
nationality.  The  differences  in  time  as  shown  in  table  3  are  not 
sufficiently  consistent  to  warrant  conclusions  as  to  definite  sex 
differences. 

Thirteen  boys  and  15  girls  of  three  years  of  age  were  given  the 


WITMER  FORM  BOARD  AND  CYLINDERS.  11 

formboard  test;  8  of  the  boys  cand  7  of  the  girls  succeeded  in  per- 
forming the  test  on  the  first  trial;  4  boys  and  4  girls  succeeded  on 
the  second  trial,  and  1  boy  and  3  girls  completed  the  test  on  the 
third  trial.  One  girl  failed  to  complete  the  test  in  the  three  trials. 
These  children  were  all  in  the  last  half  of  the  fourth  year  with  the 
exception  of  one  girl.  The  time  required  for  the  boj^s  who 
completed  the  test  on  the  first  trial  varied  from  1  minute  10  seconds  to 
7  minutes  40  seconds  and  for  the  girls  from  48  seconds  to  4  minutes 
27  seconds. 

The  shortest  time  required  for  a  four-year-old  American  boy 
successfully  to  complete  the  formboard  the  first  trial  was  28  seconds. 
Two  American  girls  and  one  Jewish  girl  each  made  a  record  of  37 
seconds  for  the  successful  first  trial.  The  best  record  for  a  five-year- 
old  boy  was  25  seconds  and  for  a  five-year-old  girl  was  27  seconds. 
Both  of  these  children  were  Americans.  In  both  cases  the  boys 
succeeded  in  a  shorter  time  than  did  the  girls.  The  situation  is 
reversed  in  the  case  of  the  three-year-olds.  An  American  girl  of 
just  three  years  completed  the  formboard  in  48  seconds  on  the  first 
trial,  while  an  American  boy  of  three  and  one-half  years  was  suc- 
cessful in  70  seconds.  A  Jewish  boy  of  2  years  5  months  succeeded 
with  the  formboard  in  6  minutes  10  seconds  on  his  first  trial,  and 
an  American  girl  of  2  years  7  months  in  1  minute  20  seconds. 

Analytical  Ratings. 

Young,  in  his  article  entitled  "Physical  and  Mental  Factors 
Involved  in  the  Formboard  Test,"  has  indicated  a  method  of  mark- 
ing deficient  performances  upon  an  analytical  chart  on  the  basis  of  a 
five-point  scale,  where  one  is  the  rating  given  a  subject  who  shows 
the  least  of  any  given  trait  or  quality,  and  five  the  rating  given  when 
the  greatest  amount  of  the  trait  or  quality  is  present.  Three  indi- 
cates the  normal  amount  of  whatever  is  being  rated.  If  finer  grada- 
tions are  desired,  each  single  group  is  divided  into  other  groups  of 
five  points  each.  In  Young's  chart,  he  shows  all  of  the  mental 
elements  which  can  be  thus  rated  by  an  experimenter  on  observa- 
tion of  a  subject  during  a  test. 

In  the  present  experiment  it  was  impossible  to  make  complete 
ratings  especially  under  the  headings  of  physical  adequacy  or  sen- 
sory fitness.  No  attempt  was  made  to  determine  functional  deficien- 
cies, and  only  those  with  marked  anatomical  abnormalities  were 
excluded.  Except  in  cases  of  obvious  myopia,  no  exclusions  were 
made  on  the  ground  of  sensory  unfitness.  Deafness  was  not  con- 
sidered a  reason  for  exclusion  where  the  child  understood  a  gesture 
well  enough  to  start  work  on  the  test,  as  he  was  as  well  fitted  to  be  a 
subject  as  the  child  who  did  not  speak  English. 


12  THE  PSYCHOLOGICAL  CLINIC. 

Ratings  were  made  under  the  subdivisions  of  Vitalitj'-,  IVIove- 
ment,  Responsiveness,  Attention,  Imagination,  and  Memory,  where 
these  appeared  to  be  factors  in  a  faikn-e.  The  attitude  of  the  chil- 
dren, while  of  great  importance,  was  not  brought  out  sufficiently 
clearly  to  warrant  a  rating  being  made  upon  it.  In  a  few  instances, 
shyness  was  a  factor  in  producing  a  refusal  to  attempt  the  test,  but 
once  attempted  there  was  no  evidence  that  it  made  a  difference. 
Competitiveness  did  not  affect  the  behavior  of  these  children. 
None  of  them  evinced  Any  interest  in  what  their  fellows  had  done, 
and  but  one  asked  the  time  required  for  his  performance. 

The  method  of  attack  proved  to  be  of  value  and  was  given  a 
rating  as  to  its  kind,  but  not  in  relation  to  what  older  children  do. 
In  making  the  rating  for  each  child,  no  attempt  was  made  to  fill 
out  a  complete  chart.  Grading  was  made  only  in  the  case  of  a 
performance  above  or  below  a  certain  level  which  the  observer  had 
noted  by  preliminary^  experimentation  as  the  ordinary  level  for  the 
child  of  this  age.  As  this  preliminar}^  experimentation  was  neces- 
sarily somewhat  limited,  the  ratings  tend  to  be  based  largelj'  upon 
the  standard  set  by  Young  for  his  six-year-olds,  and  it  is  probable, 
therefore,  that  the  grading  made,  especially  in  distribution  of  atten- 
tion, is  colored  too  much  by  the  ratings  made  on  six-year-old  per- 
formances. When  children  of  two  and  three  3"ears  were  tested,  the 
standard  for  four  years  was  used.  This  was  obviously  too  high 
and  it  is  likely  that  the  ratings  for  these  ages  would  better  be  made 
normal.  However,  as  they  are  they  serve  the  purpose  for  which 
they  were  made. 

Each  age-sex  group  were  assumed  to  be  a  normal  group,  and 
under  the  five-point  scale  would  be  placed  in  group  3  in  sub- 
division 3.  Closer  observation  of  each  group  reveals  the  fact  that 
certain  children  have  not  performed  as  well  as  most  of  the  other 
children  of  the  group  and  some  few  have  succeeded  better  than 
most  of  the  group.  In  a  few  scattered  instances,  performances 
have  been  so  much  below  that  of  the  mass  of  the  group  that  individ- 
uals have  been  placed  in  groups  4  and  5  rather  than  in  3. 

Of  the  five-year-old  boys,  182  have  been  placed  in  group  3. 
The  time  of  their  performance  varied  from  40  seconds  to  four  min- 
utes. Four  boys  were  placed  in  group  1  because  their  performance 
was  much  shorter  than  that  of  their  associates,  and  21  were  placed 
in  group  2  as  forming  a  class  doing  the  formboard  in  less  time  than 
the  rest  of  the  group,  but  not  so  quickly  as  those  in  group  1.  Groups 
4  and  5  include  the  failures,  the  former  those  who  succeeded  in  either 
the  second  or  third  trials,  and  the  latter  those  who  failed  to  suc- 
cessfully complete  the  board  in  the  three  trials. 


WITMER  FORMBOARD  AND  CYLINDERS. 


13 


One  liundred  and  sixty-tliree  five-year-old  girls  were  rated  in 
group  3,  the  time  requirement  Ijeing  from  40  seconds  to  3  minutes. 
Ten  girls  were  placed  in  group  1,  and  12  in  group  2  because  of  their 
quickness  of  performance.  Groups  4  and  5  contain  the  fail- 
ures, the  former  containing  27  and  the  latter  4,  the  division  of  the 
groups  being  made  on  the  same  basis  as  that  of  the  boys. 

One  hundred  and  one  of  the  four-year-old  boys  and  91  of  the 
girls  were  placed  in  group  3,  18  boys  and  19  girls  in  group  2,  and 
10  boys  and  7  girls  in  group  1;  23  boys  and  39  girls  were  placed  in 
group  4  because  of  failure  to  complete  the  formboard  the  first  trial, 
and  8  each  of  boys  and  girls  failed  to  complete  the  board  success- 

Table  4. — Failures  and  Sctccesses,  Distributed  bt  Quintiles. 


Age 

No.  of 
Cases 

Group 
One 

Time 
Range 

Group 
Two 

Time 
Range 

Group 
Three 

Time 
Range 

Group 
Four 

Group 
Five 

FORMBOARD. 

BOTS. 

5 

i 

231 

154 

4 

10 

258-303 
25s-45s 

21 
12 

308-403 

45s-55s 

182 
101 

40s-lm 
55s-13m 

15 

27 

Failed 
Failed 

9 

4 

Failed 
Failed 

Girls. 

5 
4 

218 
157 

5 

7 

2.5S-303 
35s-45s 

19 
12 

30s-40s 
45s-55s 

163 
91 

403-3m 
55s-6m 

23 
39 

Failed 
Failed 

8 
8 

Failed 
Failed 

CYLINDERS. 

BoTS. 

5 

1S9 

12 

lm-2m 

37 

2m-4m 

103 

Failed 

32 

Failed 

5 

Failed 

Girls. 

5 

179 

11 

lm-2m 

44 

2m-4m           88 

Failed 

33 

Failed 

3 

Failed 

fully  in  three  trials  and  were  placed  in  group  5.  Table  4  shows  this 
distribution  for  both  age  and  sex. 

Of  the  failures  of  the  five-year-old  boj's,  two  were  rated  2-5  and 
2-3  respectively  in  understanding  of  the  test,  and  the  remainder  of 
the  failures  were  judged  to  be  due  to  absence  of  distribution  of 
attention.  Persistencj''  of  attention  was  rated  at  3-1  in  the  case  of 
one  girl,  and  concentration  of  attention  at  2-5  in  the  case  of  another. 
Distribution  of  attention  was  responsible  for  the  remainder  of  the 
failures,  as  in  the  case  of  the  boys. 

The  same  ratio  holds  true  for  the  four-year-olds.  Imageabihty 
was  rated  at  2-5  in  the  case  of  one  boy,  and  persistence  of 
attention  at  2-3  for  another.  Understanding  was  rated  in  group  2 
four  times  as  a  factor  in  failures,  and  the  remainder  of  the  failures 


14  THE  PSYCHOLOGICAL  CLINIC. 

were  judged  to  be  due  to  lack  of  distribution  of  attention.  Under- 
standing was  rated  once  in  group  2  and  three  times  in  group  1  as 
a  factor  in  the  faihu'e  of  four-year-old  girls,  while  concentration  of 
attention  was  rated  2-2  once,  and  persistency  of  attention  2-3,  2-4, 
2-5  in  three  different  cases.  As  before,  the  lack  of  distribution  of 
attention  was  the  deciding  factor  in  most  of  the  cases  of  failure. 

The  failures  among  the  three-year-olds  were  due  to  lack  of 
distribution  of  attention  in  all  cases  except  three.  Two  of  these 
added  to  the  lack  of  distribution  of  attention,  poor  persistency  of 
attention.  One  failure ^was  due  to  an  absence  of  understanding  of 
the  test.  The  limited  number  of  observations  made  upon  three- 
year-old  children  makes  it  impossible  to  judge  whether  these  failures 
are  to  be  expected  because  the  three-year-old  child  has  not  yet 
developed  the  necessary  abilities  for  the  correct  performance  of 
this  test,  or  whether  they  are  due  to  the  specific  absence  of  some 
ability  in  the  individual.  Although  there  is  a  wide  range  of  individ- 
ual difference  in  degree  of  maturity,  it  is  assumed  that  the  former  is 
more  nearly  the  case. 

A  number  of  children  of  two,  three,  and  four  years  of  age  were 
unsuccessful  in  their  first  attempts  with  the  formboard.  These  chil- 
dren were  then  taught  how  to  complete  the  test.  Analytical  ratings 
were  made  as  with  the  other  children.  A  record  of  the  number  of 
trials  for  successful  performance  was  kept,  as  well  as  a  complete 
history  of  each  didactic  effort. 

The  Formhoard  as  Didactic  Material. 

Girl,  Jewish,  aged  2  yrs.  3  mos.;  2  trials;  teaching.  Correct 
in  3  m.  25s. 

Frieda  had  not  yet  lost  the  chubbiness  of  babyhood.  She 
spoke  no  Enghsh  but  talked  a  little  in  Yiddish.  She  refused  to 
reach  for  the  blocks  on  the  first  trial,  and  they  were  handed  to  her, 
with  a  gesture  toward  the  spaces.  As  soon  as  she  moved  her  hand 
in  the  right  direction  no  further  help  was  given.  In  the  first  trial 
the  blocks  were  all  placed  in  spaces  or  over  them,  none  correctly, 
with  several  grouped  around  No.  6.  There  was  an  absence  of  dis- 
tribution of  attention  and  the  method  used  was  purely  trial  and 
error.  Blocks  Nos.  6  and  2  were  used  to  teach  her  how  to  place 
them.  As  soon  as  she  would  place  these  two,  Nos.  1  and  10  were 
added.  The  process  occupied  three  minutes.  She  was  then  given 
another  trial.  She  reached  for  the  blocks  herself,  using  either 
hand  but  not  both  at  the  same  time,  and  completed  the  board  cor- 
rectly in  3m.  25s.  She  then  removed  the  blocks  herself  and  replaced 
them  correctly.  The  method  used  was  better  than  trial  and  error. 
If  a  block  did  not  fit  in  the  recess  in  which  she  tried  it,  she  placed  it 


WITMER  FOKMBOARD  AND  CYLINDERS.  15 

back  in  the  tray  and  selected  another  block  for  the  same  space. 
This  method  increased  the  time  required  for  the  performance  but 
was  successful  in  the  long  run.  It  enabled  the  child  to  complete 
the  test  with  no  change  in  the  distribution  of  her  attention. 

Girl,  Jewish,  aged  2  yrs.  9  mos.;  4  trials;  teaching.  Correct 
in  Im.  45s. 

Dottie  placed  all  the  blocks  over  spaces  in  4m.  38s.  No.  9  was 
over  the  correct  space  with  No.  8  on  top  of  it.  She  tried  the  star  over 
the  correct  space,  but  did  not  succeed  in  getting  it  in.  Distribution 
of  attention  was  rated  2-1.  The  second  trial  resulted  in  five  cor- 
rectly placed  blocks  in  2m.  8s.  Distribution  of  attention  and 
understanding  of  the  test  were  graded  respectively  2-4  and  3-1. 
The  third  trial  she  placed  three  blocks  correctly  in  Im.  55s.  She 
was  taught  with  the  blocks  which  she  had  not  correctly  placed. 
She  then  placed  all  the  blocks  correctly  in  Im.  47s.  After  this  she 
voluntarily  performed  the  test  five  times,  each  time  correctly. 
A  block  was  replaced  in  the  tray  if  it  did  not  fit  the  first  space  in 
which  it  was  tried,  and  the  second  block  chosen  was  not  always 
tried  in  the  same  space.  The  rating  made  in  distribution  of  atten- 
tion was  not  changed  in  the  last  trials. 

Girl,  Jewish,  aged  3  yrs.;  4  trials;  no  teaching.  Correct  in 
Im.  15s. 

Elizabeth  placed  the  blocks  over  spaces,  none  correctly,  in  65s. 
Distribution  of  attention  was  rated  1-3  and  understanding  2-3. 
On  the  second  trial,  seven  blocks  were  correctly  placed  in  Im.  36s. 
The  distribution  of  attention  for  this  trial  was  graded  2-1.  Five 
blocks  were  not  correctly  placed  in  the  third  trial  which  requred 
6  minutes,  but  blocks  were  both  removed  from  spaces  and  replaced. 
The  fourth  trial  resulted  in  a  successful  performance  in  Im.  15s. 
with  no  teaching. 

Girl,  Jewish,  aged  3  yrs.;  6  trials;  teaching.     Correct  in  2m.  25s 

Rose  placed  the  blocks  over  the  spaces  in  3  minutes.  None 
were  correct.  She  was  rated  1-5  in  interest  and  2-1  in  distribution 
of  attention.  After  teaching  with  all  the  blocks,  she  again  failed  to 
place  any  of  them,  although  she  played  with  them  for  five  minutes. 
She  had  constantly  to  be  urged  to  place  the  blocks,  and  was  rated 
1-3  in  persistence  of  attention.  After  teaching  with  all  the  blocks, 
she  placed  6  blocks  correctly  in  3m.  2s.  With  the  blocks  not  placed 
correctly  she  was  taught.  After  this  a  third  trial  resulted  in  6 
correctly  placed  blocks  in  2m.  17s.  She  was  taught  with  the 
blocks  not  placed  and  a  fourth  trial  given.  Again  6  blocks  were 
placed  in  6m.  5s.  The  same  blocks  were  not  placed  for  each  of 
these  trials  although  the  same  number  of  blocks  happened  to  be 
placed  correctly.     In  the  fifth  trial,  Rose  for  the  first  time  removed  a 


16  THE  PSYCHOLOGICAL  CLINIC. 

block  incorrectly  placed.  She  still  showed  the  same  lack  of  persist- 
ence and  distribution  of  attention.  With  no  further  teaching  a 
sixth  trial  was  given.  She  completed  the  test  successfully  in  2m. 
25s.  Blocks  for  particular  recesses  were  chosen  from  the  tray  and 
she  removed  a  wrongly  placed  block,  replacing  it  correctly. 

Girl,  Italian,  aged  4  yrs.  3  mos.;  four  trials;  teaching.  Cor- 
rect in  2m.  45s. 

Susie  placed  one  block  correctly  in  five  minutes.  She  used  the 
trial  and  error  method.  Persistence  of  attention  was  rated  at  2-1 
and  distribution  of  attention  at  2-5.  Four  blocks  were  correctly 
placed  in  3m.  19s.  Constant  urging  was  necessary  to  get  her  to 
finish,  and  even  then  she  made  no  attempt  to  place  the  blocks  in 
spaces,  but  placed  them  over  the  spaces.  After  3m.  44s.  she  placed 
3  blocks  successfully  on  the  third  trial.  She  was  then  taught  with 
the  blocks  not  placed.  In  2m.  45s.,  she  then  completed  the  test 
successfully.  She  still  required  urging  to  make  her  work  at  all  and 
the  rating  in  persistence  of  attention  was  not  raised  in  the  last  three 
trials.     There  was  no  lack  of  understanding  of  the  test. 

Boy,  Jewish,  aged  2  yrs.  4  mos.;  6  trials;  teaching.  Correct 
in  3m. 

Benjamin  placed  Nos.  3  and  6  in  3m.  20s.  He  was  rated  3-1 
in  coordination  and  2-5  in  observation  and  distribution  of  atten- 
tion. A  second  trial  resulted  in  4  correctly  placed  blocks  in  65s. 
and  a  third  trial  3  correctly  placed  blocks  in  2m.  10s.  In  both  cases 
the  distribution  of  attention  was  rated  2-5.  Benjamin  was  then 
taught.  He  placed  7  blocks  correctly  in  Im.  30s.  on  his  fourth  trial. 
The  method  was  improved  in  this  trial.  Closer  observation  of  the 
blocks  was  made  and  they  were  rejected  at  once  if  they  did  not  fit 
the  space  in  which  they  were  first  tried.  After  teaching,  9  blocks 
were  correctly  placed  in  Im.  5s.  After  teaching  with  the  blocks  not 
correctly  placed,  the  board  was  completed  successfully  in  3  minutes. 
The  increase  in  time  in  this  trial  appeared  to  be  due  to  fatigue  as 
the  child  held  securely  to  the  side  of  the  chair  with  one  hand,  moved 
slowly  and  yawned  frequently,  but  kept  at  work  until  it  was  finished. 

Boy,  Italian,  aged  2  yrs.  6  mos.;  3  trials;  teaching.  Complete 
m  2  m.  20s. 

Richard  placed  one  block  correctly  in  one  minute  in  his  initial 
effort  with  the  formboard.  It  was  necessary  to  hand  the  blocks  to 
liim  to  get  him  started  to  work.  He  placed  the  blocks  in  an  orderly 
line  but  did  not  associate  them  with  the  spaces  in  the  board.  He 
was  taught  with  all  the  blocks.  The  second  trial  he  placed  3  blocks 
correctly  in  Im.  4s.,  removing  one  incorrect  one  and  placing  the  cor- 
rect one  over  the  space.  With  the  blocks  which  he  had  not  placed 
he  was  taught,  and  on  a  third  trial  completed  the  board  correctly 


WITMER  FORMBOARD  AND  CYLINDERS.  17 

in  2m.  20s.  The  rating  for  distribution  of  attention  in  all  the  trials 
was  2-2.     The  rating  for  understanding  in  the  first  two  trials  was  2-3. 

Boy,  Jewish,  aged  2  yrs.  10  mos.;  6  trials;  teaching.  Correct 
in  2m. 

Lewis  placed  one  block  correctly  in  3  minutes.  His  rating  for 
understanding  was  2-1  and  for  distribution  of  attention  was  2-3. 
After  being  taught  with  all  the  blocks,  one  block  was  correctly 
placed  at  the  end  of  2  minutes.  His  movements  were  erratic  and 
the  rating  in  understanding  and  distribution  of  attention  was  not 
increased  in  this  trial.  After  all  the  blocks  were  again  used  in  teach- 
ing, 3  blocks  were  correctly  placed  in  2m.  3s.,  showing  an  adequate 
amount  of  persistence  of  attention  but  no  better  distribution  of 
attention.  After  teaching,  all  the  blocks  were  placed  in  the  wrong 
spaces  in  2m.  31s.  During  this  trial  there  was  evidence  of  fatigue 
and  he  was  dismissed  for  the  day.  On  the  following  day  at  the  same 
hour  he  completed  the  test  with  one  suggestion  in  3m.  4s.,  pushing 
hard  at  the  blocks  and  grunting  happily  when  he  had  got  them 
into  place.  The  suggestion  was  made  in  the  case  of  No.  9  which  he 
could  not  place  even  after  he  had  chosen  the  correct  space.  The 
final  trial  was  successful  in  2m. 

Boy,  Jewish,  aged  3  yrs.  2  mos.;  4  trials;  teaching.  Correct 
in  3m.  31s. 

Harry  failed  to  place  any  of  the  blocks  in  Im.  20s.  Distribu- 
tion of  attention  and  understanding  were  graded  2-1.  After  teach- 
ing with  all  the  blocks,  he  still  failed  to  place  any  correctly  in  3m.  30s. 
He  made  great  efforts  to  push  the  blocks  into  the  wrong  spaces. 
After  further  teaching  with  all  the  blocks,  he  placed  8  correctly  in 
2m.  20s.  Those  wrongly  placed  were  again  used  as  teaching  mate- 
rial, following  which  he  successfully  placed  all  the  blocks  in  3m.  31s. 

Boy,  Jewish,  aged  4  yrs.  8  mos.;  5  trials;  teaching.  Correct 
in  54s. 

Aleck  placed  four  blocks  correctly  in  his  first  trial  with  the  form- 
board.  He  was  rated  2-3  in  observation  and  4-3  in  rate  of  move- 
ment. The  ratings  were  not  changed  in  the  second  trial  when  he 
placed  7  blocks  correctl}'  in  2m.  6s.  Six  blocks  were  correcth'  placed 
in  Im.  48s.  on  the  third  trial,  in  which  observation  was  rated  2-5. 
He  removed  correctly  placed  blocks  and  tried  to  replace  them  with 
blocks  very  different  from  those  removed.  In  the  fourth  trial  he 
placed  9  blocks  correctly  in  Im.  42s.  He  was  then  taught  with  the 
blocks  which  had  not  been  correctly  placed,  and  completed  the 
board  in  54s.  Exactly  one  week  later  he  performed  the  test  in  76s. 
with  no  errors.  A  final  rating  of  2-3  in  observation  in  direct  com- 
parison with  four-year-old  bo3'S  was  made  in  his  case. 


18  THE  PSYCHOLOGICAL  CLINIC. 

Conclusions. 

Ninety  per  cent  of  five-year-old  children  should  be  expected 
successfully  to  complete  the  formboard  on  the  first  trial,  according 
to  the  results  obtained  in  this  investigation.  Two  per  cent  may  be 
expected  to  fail  to  complete  it  in  three  trials.  Seventy-five  per  cent  of 
four-year-old  children  should  be  successful  in  the  first  trial,  while 
5  per  cent  may  not  be  able  to  complete  the  test  in  three  trials. 
Although  the  number  of  cases  is  very  small,  it  seems  that  half  of  the 
three-year-old  children  in  the  last  half  of  the  year  may  be  expected 
to  be  successful  in  the  first  trial,  while  many  of  the  remainder  will 
succeed  after  several  trials,  or  may  be  taught  in  a  short  time.  This 
is  also  true  of  younger  children. 

Five-year-old  children  possess  adequate  distribution  of  atten- 
tion to  be  successful  with  the  test.  Understanding  of  the  test,  per- 
sistence of  attention  and  other  abilities  may  occasionally  be  lack- 
ing, but  are  not  conspicuously  absent  in  children  of  this  age.  Four- 
year-old  children  show  less  distribution  of  attention  than  the  five- 
year-olds,  and  this  ability  decreases  with  age.  Among  the  two- 
year-olds  tried  with  the  test,  none  showed  adequate  distribution  of 
attention  for  success  with  a  method  other  than  trial  and  error  or 
fitting  a  given  space  with  blocks  chosen  at  random.  Fitting  the 
block  to  a  space  was  a  method  which  appeared  with  greater  distribu- 
tion of  attention,  and  was  used  by  the  five-year-olds  and  most  of  the 
four-year-olds. 

The  rate  of  movement  was  slow  with  the  smaller  children  and 
increased  with  age,  as  the  shortened  time  for  successful  performances 
indicates.  Only  one  child  tried  to  hurry  when  told  to  do  so.  Two 
four-year-olds  and  20  five-year-olds  used  both  hands  in  placing  the 
blocks.  Either  hand,  but  not  both,  was  used  by  the  younger 
children. 

Several  of  the  small  children  sang  lustily  while  working.  All 
pushed  hard  at  the  blocks  to  get  them  in  the  spaces,  and  all  gave  the 
blocks  a  pat  with  the  palm  of  the  hand  after  they  were  in.  Often 
this  was  accompanied  by  a  grunt  of  satisfaction.  Once  at  work  they 
paid  no  attention  to  the  experimenter.  At  no  time  was  there  evi- 
dence of  ill  temper  while  the  board  was  being  used.  There  were  a 
few  occasions  when  a  child  had  to  be  left  to  himself  in  the  room 
while  another  child  performed  the  test  in  order  that  he  might  acquire 
confidence  to  approach  the  board.  If  the  child  would  not  approach 
the  board  of  his  own  accord,  he  was  left  for  another  time.  Only 
one  failure  was  recorded  because  of  refusal  to  come  to  the  board, 
and  this  was  not  counted  with  the  others,  as  the  child  had  just  been 
removed  from  her  own  home  to  a  temporary  home. 


WITHER  FORMBOARD  AND  CYLINDERS.  19 

From  those  results  we  may  conclude: — 

1 .  The  age  level  for  the  formboard  is  four  years ; 

2.  It  has  clinical  value  analytically  for  children  of  four  and 
five  years  of  age,  and  probably  of  those  of  three  years. 

3.  The  passing  age  level  is  the  last  half  of  the  fourth  j^ear. 

4.  The  most  frequent  cause  of  failure  is  the  absence  of  sufficient 
distribution  of  attention  which  seems  to  be  a  function  of  age;    and 

5.  Failing  as  clinical  material,  the  formboard  may  profitablj'  be 
used  didactically  for  purposes  of  analysis  and  for  observation  of  the 
learning  process. 

§2.     The  Witmer  Cylinders. 

Of  the  368  five-year-old  children  who  were  given  the  C3'linder 
test,  189  were  boys  and  179  were  girls;  140  or  73.9  per  cent  of  the 
boys  and  124  or  63.9  per  cent  of  the  girls  failed  to  perform  the  test 
successfully  on  the  first  trial,  (table  1);  41.5  per  cent  of  the  boys  and 
39.1  per  cent  of  the  girls  failed  on  the  second  trial  and  32.9  per  cent 
of  the  boys  and  26.8  per  cent  of  the  girls  failed  on  the  third  trial. 

Table  2  shows  the  percentage  of  Jewish  boys  as  opposed  to 
American  boys  and  Jewish  girls  as  opposed  to  American  girls.  As 
was  the  case  with  the  formboard,  the  percentage  of  failures  among 
the  Jewish  boys  is  considerably  in  excess  of  that  of  the  American 
boys,  while  the  differences  in  the  case  of  the  girls  is  very  much  less 
marked. 

Of  the  boys  of  5.75  years  33  were  successful  on  the  first  trial 
with  an  average  time  of  3m.  21.5s.  The  mean  deviation  was  2m. 
27.2s.  Sixteen  boys  of  5.25  years  were  successful  on  the  first  trial, 
with  an  average  time  of  3m.  9.4s.  The  mean  deviation  was  Im.  17.1s. 
Thirty-two  girls  of  5.75  yrs.  were  successful  on  the  first  trial  with  an 
average  time  of  3m.  12.4s.  The  mean  deviation  was  Im.  19.2s. 
Twenty-three  girls  of  5.25  years  were  successful  the  first  trial;  their 
average  time  was  3m.  20.2s.  with  a  mean  deviation  of  Im.  6.3s. 

Distribution  of  the  results  of  the  cylinder  test  bj'  quintiles 
showed  that  the  normal  group  or  group  3  contained  onl}-  those  who 
had  failed  the  first  time.  It  included  also  some  who  had  failed  on 
the  second  trial,  but  whose  errors  on  this  trial  were  few  in  numl^er 
and  not  gross  in  character;  103  boys  and  88  girls  were  placed  in  this 
group.  Thirty-two  boys  and  33  girls  were  placed  in  group  four. 
They  did  not  succeed  in  completing  the  test  in  three  trials,  but  their 
results  showed  a  decreasing  number  of  errors  and  indicated  that 
they  were  learning.  Five  boj's  and  3  girls  were  placed  in  group  5 
not  only  because  they  failed  in  three  trials  to  complete  the  test,  but 
also  because  an  increased  number  of  errors  in  each  trial  showed 


20  THE  PSYCHOLOGICAL  CLINIC. 

that  they  were  not  learning.  Groups  1  and  2  include  those  suc- 
cessful on  the  first  trial,  (table  4). 

Table  3  shows  the  time  distribution  as  far  as  possible  and  the 
distribution  by  quintiles  in  even  groups.  Only  the  figures  for  the 
lowest  quintile  or  the  lowest  20  per  cent  can  be  given,  as  all  the 
other  groups  contain  only  failures.  The  mean  and  mean  deviation 
for  the  successes  of  the  entire  group  regardless  of  the  number  of 
trials  are  meaningless,  as  many  of  those  who  failed  on  the  first  or 
second  trial  learned  enough  during  those  trials  to  perform  success- 
fully in  less  time  than  was  required  by  those  who  were  successful 
on  the  first  trial. 

The  same  children  who  did  the  cylinders  also  did  the  form- 
board.  By  the  Spearman  rank  method,  using  time  as  the  basis  of 
ranking,  except  for  the  unsuccessful  third  trials  where  the  number  of 
final  errors  was  used,  the  correlation  between  the  two  series  was 
.2065  for  the  boys  and  .1492  for  the  girls.  This  low  correlation 
between  two  tests  of  apparently  such  similar  character  agrees  with 
the  results  obtained  by  Mrs.  Mary  Hoover  Young  with  the  same 
tests. 

Eleven  four-year-old  boys  and  9  four-year-old  girls  were  given 
the  cylinder  test.  They  were  chosen  as  being  the  best  of  the  group 
from  the  standpoint  of  their  performance  on  the  formboard — an 
assumption  not  warranted  by  subsequent  correlation  coefficients — 
in  conjunction  with  the  teacher's  opinion  of  their  kindergarten  work; 
5  of  the  boys  succeeded  the  first  trial,  2  the  third  trial,  and  4  failed 
in  the  three  trials.  Three  of  the  girls  succeeded  the  first  trial,  2  the 
second  trial  and  1  the  third  trial,  while  3  failed  in  all  three  trials. 

The  shortest  time  required  for  an  American  boy  to  perform  the 
cylinder  test  for  the  first  trial  was  Im.  23s.  A  Jewish  girl  gave  the 
same  performance  in  Im.  4s.  Both  of  these  children  were  five 
years  of  age.  A  Polish  girl  of  four  years,  six  months  performed  the 
test  in  Im.  10s.  the  first  trial.  A  Jewish  boy  of  four  years  eight 
months  completed  the  test  in  Im.  58s.  No  children  younger  than 
four  years  were  tried  with  the  cylinders. 

The  Cijlinders  as  Didactic  Material. 
Boy,  Italian,  aged  4  yrs.;    8  trials;    teaching.      Complete  in 
Im.  42s. 

Pasquale  completed  the  formboard  correctly  and  then  placed 

3  cylinders  in  4m.  59s.  His  analytic  and  distributive  attention  were 
rated  2-3.  He  was  persistent,  but  in  a  nervous  excited  sort  of  way. 
He  placed  3  cylinders  correctly  in  3m.  50s.  on  the  second  trial  and 

4  correctly  in  4m.  8s.  on  the  trial.     He  showed  the  same  lack  of 


WITMER   FORM  BOARD  AND  CYLINDERS.  21 

distribution  of  attention  and  analytic  concentration  that  he  had  on 
the  first  trial.  He  was  then  taught  with  all  the  cylinders.  The 
fourth  trial  resulted  in  3  correctly  placed  cjdinders  in  eight  minutes. 
At  this  time  Pasquale  was  dismissed  and  was  not  recalled  to  the 
task  until  two  days  later,  when  he  placed  11  cylinders  correctly  in 
3m.  50s.  The  errors  consisted  of  interchanges  of  C3dinders  of  small 
difference  in  height.  The  distributive  attention  had  improved  and 
was  rated  at  3-1,  and  the  analytic  concentration  of  attention  was 
rated  at  2-5,  while  there  was  much  less  of  the  hurried  nervous 
movement  noted  the  first  day.  After  2m.  Is.,  10  cylinders  were 
correctly  placed  on  the  sixth  trial,  and  12  were  correctly  placed 
after  2m.  21s.  on  the  seventh  trial.  Teaching  with  the  incorrectly 
placed  blocks  was  continued  and  an  eighth  trial  then  given.  After 
Im.  42s.  two  cylinders  were  left  interchanged.  This  was  corrected 
on  one  suggestion.  Two  subsequent  trials  undertaken  on  his  own 
initiative  were  successful. 

Boy,  Jewish,  aged  4  yrs.;  8  trials;  teaching.  Complete  in 
2m.  lis. 

Sam  placed  one  cylinder  correctly  on  his  first  attempt.  He  was 
rated  3-1  both  in  distribution  and  concentration  of  attention.  He 
talked  constantly  to  himself  and  suggested  that  some  of  the  tops 
of  the  cylinders  ought  to  be  chopped  off.  He  did  not  remove  a 
C3'linder  after  having  once  placed  it.  He  was  rated  2-4  in  general 
understanding  of  the  test,  the  grade  being  the  same  for  the  first 
three  trials.  The  second  trial  resulted  in  7  cj-linders  being  cor- 
rectly placed  in  14m.  20s.  The  distribution  of  attention  was  rated 
at  3-1.  During  the  third  trial,  when  he  placed  12  cylinders  cor- 
rectly in  7m.,  his  attention  was  easily  distracted,  and  he  was  rated 
2-3  in  persistent  concentration  of  attention.  Teaching  followed 
this  trial,  and  then  the  boy  was  dismissed  for  the  day.  One  week 
later  at  the  same  time  a  fifth  trial  resulted  in  3  cylinders  success- 
fully placed  in  2m.  5s.  Understanding  of  the  test  was  rated  2-5 
in  this  trial.  Persistent  concentration  of  attention  was  good.  The 
sixth  trial  resulted  in  8  errors  at  the  end  of  6  minutes,  with  many 
deep  sighs  from  the  subject.  There  was  no  evidence  of  illness,  but 
some  urging  was  necessary  to  induce  him  to  complete  the  test. 
The  seventh  trial  resulted  in  2  errors,  both  interchanges  of  cylinders 
of  the  same  diameter  but  of  different  length,  after  3m.  5s.  They 
were  corrected  with  one  suggestion.  The  eighth  trial  was  successful 
in  2m.  lis.,  using  the. method  of  fitting  the  cylinder  to  the  recess. 

Boy,  Jewish,  aged  4  yrs.;  4  trials;  no  teaching.  Complete  in 
5m.  46s. 

Max  placed  5  cylinders  correctly  in  5m.  47s.,  leaving  2  C5-linders 


22  THE  PSYCHOLOGICAL  CLINIC. 

unplaced.  On  a  second  trial  he  placed  13  cylinders  correctly  in 
4m.  31s.  He  was  dismissed  without  teaching,  and  two  days  later 
at  the  same  hour  was  recalled  to  complete  the  test  successfully  in 
5m.  46s.  The  method  was  trial  and  error.  The  failure  the  first 
day  was  due  to  lack  of  understanding,  in  which  he  was  rated  2-5. 

Boy,  Jewish,  aged  4  yrs.  5  mos.;  4  trials;  teaching.  Complete 
in  Im.  31s. 

Bernard  placed  9  cylinders  correctly  in  5  minutes.  One  was 
left  unplaced.  He  fitted  the  cylinders  to  the  spaces.  Distributive 
attention  was  rated  2-5.  Those  cylinders  placed  in  too  shallow  a 
recess  he  attempted  to  push  in  by  violence,  even  suggesting  the 
use  of  a  hammer.  The  second  trial  showed  a  better  distribution  of 
attention,  although  but  5  cylinders  were  correctly  placed  in  3m.  29s. 
Five  cylinders  were  correctly  placed  and  one  left  unplaced  in  the 
third  trial  in  2m.  9s.  The  errors  were  always  among  cylinders  of 
the  same  diameter  but  of  different  length.  Correctly  placed  cylin- 
ders were  removed  and  placed  in  spaces  not  intended  for  them,  thus 
showing  an  absence  of  understanding  of  the  test.  Teaching  followed 
this  trial  and  then  Max  had  a  glass  of  milk  and  a  cake.  The  trial 
following  the  refreshment  was  successful  in  Im.  35s. 

Boy,  Jewish,  aged  4  yrs. ;  4  trials;  teaching.     Correct  in  2m.  20s. 

Teddy  placed  no  blocks  correctly  on  the  first  trial  of  the  cylin- 
ders, which  required  6m.  20s.  He  constantly  remarked  that  he 
could  not  do  it,  and  applied  opprobrious  street  terms  to  cylinders 
which  would  not  enter  spaces  in  which  he  tried  to  force  them.  He 
was  rated  1-5  in  persistence  of  attention  and  2-3  in  interest.  He 
knew  what  he  was  supposed  to  do,  but  had  no  intention  of  doing  it 
if  he  could  get  out  of  it.  He  placed  9  cylinders  correctly  in  6m.  2s. 
on  his  second  attempt.  He  still  required  urging  to  get  him  to  work. 
His  third  trial,  completed  at  the  end  of  3m.  7s.,  resulted  in  but  three 
misplaced  cylinders  and  his  reactions  to  the  test  appeared  normal. 
He  remarked  that  he  knew  he  could  do  it  on  the  fourth  trial,  and 
was  successful  in  2m.  20s.  No  formal  teaching  was  given  in  this 
case,  but  without  the  stimuli  supplied  during  the  first  two  trials  the 
test  would  never  have  been  completed  successfully. 

Boy,  American,  aged  4  yrs.  11  mos.;  5  trials;  teaching.  Cor- 
rect in  2m.  25s. 

Seven  errors  were  left  on  the  first  attempt  Hamilton  made  to 
complete  the  cylinder  test.  The  time  was  4m.  48s.  He  removed 
blocks  correctly  placed,  but  replaced  all  but  one  of  them.  His 
understanding  of  the  test  was  rated  3-1  and  his  distribution  of  atten- 
tion 2-5.  Six  cylinders  were  correctly  placed  on  the  second  trial, 
completed  in  4m.  55s.      One  cylinder  was  not  placed.      Analytic 


WITMER  FORMBOARD  AND  CYLINDERS.  23 

concentration  of  attention  was  rated  2-4  for  this  performance. 
Only  6  cylinders  were  correct  after  4ni.  16s.  on  the  third  trial. 
Teaching  followed,  and  for  a  third  time  6  cylinders  were  correctly 
placed  in  2m.  25s.  On  two  suggestions  these  were  corrected  and  the 
test  comi)leted  in  4m.  15s.     The  fifth  trial  was  successful  in  3m.  12s. 

Boy,  Irish- American,  aged  5  yrs.  5  mos. ;  3  trials;  teaching. 
Complete  in  2m.  Is. 

William  was  reported  very  dull  by  his  teacher.  He  placed 
12  cylinders  correctly  in  2m.  13s.  on  his  first  attempt.  His  errors 
were  interchanges  of  cylinders  varying  in  diameter.  His  rating 
on  observation  was  3-1.  Using  the  trial  and  error  method  he  placed 
6  cylinders  correctly  in  9m.  2s.  the  second  trial.  He  removed  cor- 
rectly placed  cylinders,  replacing  them  by  cylinders  very  different. 
His  rate  of  movement  was  very  slow,  rated  at  1-5,  and  his  under- 
standing of  the  test  2-3.  Finally  he  placed  all  the  blocks  but  the 
largest  one,  which  he  omitted,  replacing  it  by  its  right  hand  neighbor 
and  continuing  the  process  half-way  around  the  board  so  that  a 
large  number  of  errors  resulted.  He  could  not  find  out  what  was 
wrong,  so  he  was  told  where  to  place  the  largest  cylinder,  after  which 
he  readily  placed  the  others  correctly.  The  third  trial  was  success- 
fully completed  in  2m.  Is. 

Girl,  Jewish,  aged  4  yrs.  10  mos.;  5  trials;  no  teaching.  Com- 
plete in  4m.  2s. 

Miriam  succeeded  easily  with  the  formboard,  but  placed  only 
3  cylinders  correctly  in  4m.  8s.  She  removed  cylinders  which  did 
not  satisfy  her  and  pushed  hard  at  those  which  rose  too  far  above 
the  surface  of  the  board.  She  was  rated  2-3  both  in  distributive 
attention  and  understanding  of  the  test.  On  a  second  trial,  9  cylin- 
ders were  placed  correctly  in  2m.  40s.  She  fitted  the  space  with  the 
cylinder  and  made  her  errors  with  cylinders  of  either  the  same 
diameter  or  height.  The  distribution  of  attention  was  rated  3-1. 
The  third  trial  resulted  in  12  correctly  placed  cylinders  in  3m.  38s. 
Observation  of  differences  was  made  only  for  diameters,  any  height 
being  accepted  for  a  space  so  long  as  the  diameter  was  correct. 
There  was  no  teaching  at  the  end  of  this  trial,  as  the  performance 
seemed  to  warrant  the  assumption  that  she  would  get  it  herself. 
Twelve  cylinders  were  correctly  placed  on  the  fourth  trial  in  6m.  15s. 
At  the  end  of  this  trial  Miriam  remarked  that  the  long  one  "showed 
out,"  indicating  that  she  was  beginning  to  understand  what  was 
wanted.  On  the  fifth  trial  there  were  no  errors,  the  cyUnders  being 
placed  after  4m.  20s.,  the  problem  being  attacked  with  an  assurance 
wholly  lacking  in  the  first  four  trials. 


24  THE  PSYCHOLOGICAL  CLINIC. 

Girl,  American,  aged  5  yrs.  6  mos,;  5  trials;  teaching.  Com- 
plete in  3m.  8s. 

Helen,  after  4m.  55s.,  completed  a  performance  in  which  she 
had  placed. 12  cylinders  correctly.  She  placed  the  blocks  at  random 
and  did  not  remove  them.  Her  rating  in  understanding  was  2-1. 
Eleven  cjdinders  were  correctly  placed  in  the  second  attempt  after 
Im.  27s.,  and  3  were  correctly  placed  the  third  trial  after  3m.  21s. 
The  same  lack  of  understanding  was  shown  in  these  two  trials  and 
the  rating  for  understanding  remained  the  same.  Teaching  followed 
the  third  trial.  Twelve  cylinders  were  correctly  placed  in  the  fourth 
trial  after  4m.  2s.  These  errors  were  corrected  on  one  suggestion. 
The  fifth  trial  was  successful  in  3m.  8s. 

Conclusions. 

The  repeated  low  ratings  for  understanding  given  in  the  cases 
which  were  taught,  indicate  that  the  cylinder  test  is  distinctly  above 
the  understanding  of  children  of  four  years,  and  the  fact  that  so 
many  children  of  five  years  fail  with  the  test  confirms  this  view 
with  children  of  five  years.     The  results  show: — 

1.  The  age  level  of  the  test  is  certainly  no  lower  than  five  years, 
and  is  more  properly  placed  above  five  years; 

2.  The  test  is  of  value  analytically  for  children  of  five  years, 
but  requires  in  the  majority  of  cases  too  much  time  for  its  successful 
use  to  make  it  of  general  value  as  clinical  material  for  children  of 
four  and  five  years ; 

3.  The  passing  age  level  of  50  per  cent  of  the  group  for  one  trial 
is  certainly  higher  than  five  years; 

4.  The  most  common  cause  of  failure  is  an  inadequate  under- 
standing of  the  test  as  a  result  of  its  too  great  complexity;  and 

5.  Failing  as  clinical  material  for  children  of  five  years,  it  still 
possesses  value  as  didactic  material  where  time  does  not  limit  the 
observation. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 
Paschal,   Franklin   C.      The  Witmer   Cylinder  Test.      Hershey,   Pa.:    The 

Hershey  Press,  1918,  pp.  54. 
Paschal,   Franklin   C.      A   Report   on   the  Standardization   of  the  Witmer 

Cylinder  Test.      The   Psychol.   Clinic,  Vol.  XII,   No.   2,  April,   1918, 

pp.  54-59. 
Williams,  Gertha.     A  Possible  Restoration  Case.     The  Psychol.  Clinic, 

1916,  Vol.  IX,  No.  8,  pp.  221-233. 
YorNG,  Herman  H.    The  Witmer  Formboard.    The  Psychol.  Clinic,  Vol.  X, 

No.  4,  June,  1916,  pp.  93-111. 
Young,  Herman  H.     Physical  and  Mental  Factors  Involved  in  the  Formboard 

Test.    The  Psychol.  Clinic,  Vol.  X,  No.  6,  Nov.,  1916,  pp.  149-167. 
Young,  Mary  Hoo\'er.     Correlation  of  the  Witmer  Formboard  and  Cylinder 

Test.    The  Psychol.  Clinic,  Vol.  X,  No.  4,  June,  1916,  pp.  112-116. 


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